Examples of true eloquence
drawn from the epistles of Paul and the prophecies of Amos
For who would not see what the apostle
meant to say, and how wisely he has said it, in the following
passage: "We glory in tribulations also: knowing that tribulation
worketh patience; and patience, experience; and experience, hope:
and hope maketh not ashamed; because the love of God is shed
abroad in our hearts by the Holy Ghost which is given unto us"?
Now were any man unlearnedly learned (if I may use the expression)
to contend that the apostle had here followed the rules of rhetoric,
would not every Christian, learned or unlearned, laugh at him?
And yet here we find the figure which is called in Greek "klimax"
(climax,) and by some in Latin gradatio, for they do not care
to call it scala (a ladder), when the words and ideas have a
connection of dependency the one upon the other, as we see here
that patience arises out of tribulation, experience out of patience,
and hope out of experience. Another ornament, too, is found here;
for after certain statements finished in a single tone of voice,
which we call clauses and sections (membra et caesa), but the
Greeks "koola" and "kommata", there follows
a rounded sentence (ambitus sive circuitus) which the Greeks
call "periodos", the clauses of which are suspended
on the voice of the speaker till the whole is completed by the
last clause. For of the statements which precede the period;
this is the first clause, "knowing that tribulation worketh
patience;" the second, "and patience, experience;"
the third, "and experience, hope." Then the period
which is subjoined is completed in three clauses, of which the
first is, "and hope maketh not ashamed;" the second,
"because the love of God is shed abroad in our hearts;"
the third, "by the Holy Ghost which is given unto us."
But these and other matters of the same kind are taught in the
art of elocution. As then I do not affirm that the apostle was
guided by the rules of eloquence, so I do not deny that his wisdom
naturally produced, and was accompanied by, eloquence. In the
Second Epistle to the Corinthians, again, he refutes certain
false apostles who had gone out from the Jews, and had been trying
to injure his character; and being compelled to speak of himself
though he ascribes this as folly to himself how wisely and how
eloquently he speaks! But wisdom is his guide, eloquence his
attendant; he follows the first, the second follows him, and
yet he does not spurn it when it comes after him. "I say
again," he says, "Let no man think me a fool: if otherwise,
yet as a fool receive me, that I may boast myself a little. That
which I speak, I speak it not after the Lord, but as it were
foolishly, in this confidence of boasting. Seeing that many glory
after the flesh, I will glory also. For ye suffer fools gladly,
seeing ye yourselves are wise. For ye suffer, if a man bring
you into bondage, if a man devour you, if a man take of you,
if a man exalt himself, if a man smite you on the face. I speak
as concerning reproach, as though we had been weak. Howbeit,
whereinsoever any is bold (I speak foolishly), I am bold also.
Are they Hebrews? so am I. Are they Israelites? so am I. Are
they the seed of Abraham? so am I. Are they ministers of Christ?
(I speak as a fool), I am more: in labours more abundant, in
stripes above measure, in prisons more frequent, in deaths oft.
Of the Jews five times received I forty stripes save one, thrice
was I beaten with rods, once was I stoned, thrice I suffered
shipwreck, a night and a day I have been in the deep; in journeying
often, in perils of waters, in perils of robbers, in perils by
mine own countrymen, in perils by the heathen, in perils in the
city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils in the sea, in perils
among false brethren; in weariness and painfulness, in watchings
often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often, in cold and nakedness.
Besides those things which are without, that which comets upon
me daily, the care of all the churches. Who is weak, and I am
not weak? who is offended, and I burn not? If I must needs glory,
I will glory of the things which concern my infirmities."
The thoughtful and attentive perceive how much wisdom there is
in these words. And even a man sound asleep must notice what
a stream of eloquence flows through them. 13. Further still,
the educated man observes that those sections which the Greeks
call "kommata", and the clauses and periods of which
I spoke a short time ago, being intermingled in the most beautiful
variety, make up the whole form and features (so to speak) of
that diction by which even the unlearned are delighted and affected.
For, from the place where I commenced to quote, the passage consists
of periods: the first the smallest possible, consisting of two
members; for a period cannot have less than two members, though
it may have more: "I say again, let no man think me a fool."
The Next
has three members: "if otherwise, yet as a fool
receive me, that I may boast myself a little." The third
has four members: "That which I speak, I speak it not after
the Lord, but as it were foolishly, in this confidence of boasting."
The fourth has two: "Seeing that many glory after the flesh,
I will glory also." And the fifth has two: "For ye
suffer fools gladly, seeing ye yourselves are wise." The
sixth again has two members: "for ye suffer, if a man bring
you into bondage." Then follow three sections (caesa): "if
a man devour you, if a man take of you, if a man exalt himself."
Next
three clauses (membra): if "a man smite you on the
face. I speak as concerning reproach, as though we had been weak."
Then is subjoined a period of three members: "Howbeit, whereinsoever
any is bold (I speak foolishly), I am bold also." After
this, certain separate sections being put in the interrogatory
form, separate sections are also given as answers, three to three:
"Are they Hebrews? so am I. Are they Israelites? so am I.
Are they the seed of Abraham? so am I." But a fourth section
being put likewise in the interrogatory form, the answer is given
not in another section (caesum) but in a clause (membrum): "Are
they the ministers of Christ? (I speak as a fool.) I am more."
Then the Next
four sections are given continuously, the interrogatory
form being most elegantly suppressed: "in labours more abundant,
in stripes above measure, in prisons more frequent, in deaths
oft." Next
is interposed a short period; for, by a suspension
of the voice, "of the Jews five times" is to be marked
off as constituting one member, to which is joined the second,
"received I forty stripes save one." Then he returns
to sections, and three are set down: "Thrice was I beaten
with rods, once was I stoned, thrice I suffered shipwreck."
Next
comes a clause: "a night and a day I have been in the
deep." Next
fourteen sections burst forth with a vehemence
which is most appropriate: "In journeying often, in perils
of waters, in perils of robbers, in perils by mine own countrymen,
in perils by the heathen, in perils in the city, in perils in
the wilderness, in perils in the sea, in perils among false brethren,
in weariness and painfulness, in watchings often, in hunger and
thirst, in fastings often, in cold and nakedness." After
this comes in a period of three members: "Besides those
things which are without, that which comets upon me daily, the
care of all the churches." And to this he adds two clauses
in a tone of inquiry: "Who is weak, and I am not weak? who
is offended, and I burn not?" In fine, this whole passage,
as if panting for breath, winds up with a period of two members:
"If I must needs glory, I will glory of the things which
concern mine infirmities." And I cannot sufficiently express
how beautiful and delightful it is when after this outburst he
rests himself, and gives the hearer rest, by interposing a slight
narrative. For he goes on to say: "The God and Father of
our Lord Jesus Christ, which is blessed for evermore, knoweth
that I lie not." And then he tells, very briefly the danger
he had been in, and the way he escaped it. It would be tedious
to pursue the matter further, or to point out the same facts
in regard to other passages of Holy Scripture. Suppose I had
taken the further trouble, at least in regard to the passages
I have quoted from the apostle's writings, to point out figures
of speech which are taught in the art of rhetoric? Is it not
more likely that serious men would think I had gone too far,
than that any of the studious would think I had done enough?
All these things when taught by masters are reckoned of great
value; great prices are paid for them, and the vendors puff them
magniloquently. And I fear lest I too should smack of that puffery
while thus descanting on matters of this kind. It was necessary,
however, to reply to the ill-taught men who think our authors
contemptible; not because they do not possess, but because they
do not display, the eloquence which these men value so highly.
But perhaps some one is thinking that I have selected the Apostle
Paul because he is our great orator. For when he says, "Though
I be rude in speech, yet not in knowledge," he seems to
speak as if granting so much to his detractors, not as confessing
that he recognized its truth. If he had said, "I am indeed
rude in speech, but not in knowledge," we could not in any
way have put another meaning upon it. He did not hesitate plainly
to assert his knowledge, because without it he could not have
been the teacher of the Gentiles. And certainly if we bring forward
anything of his as a model of eloquence, we take it from those
epistles which even his very detractors, who thought his bodily
presence weak and his speech contemptible, confessed to be weighty
and powerful. I see, then, that I must say something about the
eloquence of the prophets also, where many things are concealed
under a metaphorical style, which the more completely they seem
buried under figures of speech, give the greater pleasure when
brought to light. In this place, however, it is my duty to select
a passage of such a kind that I shall not be compelled to explain
the matter, but only to commend the style. And I shall do so,
quoting principally from the book of that prophet who says that
he was a shepherd or herdsman, and was called by God from that
occupation, and sent to prophesy to the people of God. I shall
not, however, follow the Septuagint translators, who, being themselves
under the guidance of the Holy Spirit in their translation, seem
to have altered some passages with the view of directing the
reader's attention more particularly to the investigation of
the spiritual sense; (and hence some passages are more obscure,
because more figurative, in their translation;) but I shall follow
the translation made from the Hebrew into Latin by the presbyter
Jerome, a man thoroughly acquainted with both tongues. When,
then, this rustic, or quondam rustic prophet, was denouncing
the godless, the proud, the luxurious, and therefore the most
neglectful of brotherly love, he called aloud, saying: "Woe
to you who are at ease in Zion, and trust in the mountain of
Samaria, who are heads and chiefs of the people, entering with
pomp into the house of Israel! Pass ye unto Calneh, and see;
and from thence go ye to Hamath the great; then go down to Gath
of the Philistines, and to all the best kingdoms of these: is
their border greater than your border? Ye that are set apart
for the day of evil, and that come near to the seat of oppression;
that lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch yourselves upon couches;
that eat the lamb of the flock, and the calves out of the midst
of the herd; that chant to the sound of the viol. They thought
that they had instruments of music like David; drinking wine
in bowls, and anointing themselves with the costliest ointment:
and they were not grieved for the affliction of Joseph."
Suppose those men who, assuming to be themselves learned and
eloquent, despise our prophets as untaught and unskilful of speech,
had been obliged to deliver a message like this, and to men such
as these, would they have chosen to express themselves in any
respect differently--those of them, at least, who would have
shrunk from raving like madmen? For what is there that sober
ears could wish changed in this speech? In the first place, the
invective itself; with what vehemence it throws itself upon the
drowsy senses to startle them into wakefulness: "Woe to
you who are at ease in Zion, and trust in the mountains of Samaria,
who are heads and chiefs of the people, entering with pomp into
the house of Israel!" Next
, that he may use the favours
of God, who has bestowed upon them ample territory, to show their
ingratitude in trusting to the mountain of Samaria, where idols
were worshipped: "Pass ye unto Calneh," he says, "and
see, and from thence go ye to Hamath the great; then go down
to Gath of the Philistines, and to all the best kingdoms of these:
is their border greater than your border?" At the same time
also that these things are spoken of, the style is adorned with
names of places as with lamps, such as "Zion," "Samaria,"
"Calneh," "Hamath the great," and "Gath
of the Philistine." Then the words joined to these places
are most appropriately varied: "ye are at ease," "ye
trust," "pass on," "go," "descend."
And then the future captivity under an oppressive king is announced
as approaching, when it is added: "Ye that are set apart
for the day of evil, and come near to the seat of oppression."
Then are subjoined the evils of luxury: "ye that lie upon
beds of ivory, and stretch yourselves upon couches; that eat
the lamb from the flock, and the calves out of the midst of the
herd." These six clauses form three periods of two members
each. For he does not say: "Ye who are set apart for the
day of evil, who come near to the seat of oppression, who sleep
upon beds of ivory, who stretch yourselves upon couches, who
eat the lamb from the flock, and calves out of the herd."
If he had so expressed it, this would have had its beauty: six
separate clauses running on, the same pronoun being repeated
each time, and each clause finished by a single effort of the
speaker's voice. But it is more beautiful as it is, the clauses
being joined in pairs under the same pronoun, and forming three
sentences, one referring to the prophecy of the captivity: "Ye
that are set apart for the day of evil, and come near the seat
of oppression;" the second to lasciviousness: "ye that
lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch yourselves upon couches;"
the third to gluttony: "who eat the lamb from the flock,
and the calves out of the midst of the herd." So that it
is at the discretion of the speaker whether he finish each clause
separately and make six altogether, or whether he suspend his
voice at the first, the third, and the fifth, and by joining
the second to the first, the fourth to the third, and the sixth
to the fifth, make three most elegant periods of two members
each: one describing the imminent catastrophe; another, the lascivious
couch; and the third, the luxurious table. Next
he reproaches
them with their luxury in seeking pleasure for the sense of hearing.
And here, when he had said, "Ye who chant to the sound of
the viol," seeing that wise men may practice music wisely,
he, with wonderful skill of speech, checks the flow of his invective,
and not now speaking to, but of, these men, and to show us that
we must distinguish the music of the wise from the music of the
voluptuary, he does not say, "Ye who chant to the sound
of the viol, and think that ye have instruments of music like
David;" but he first addresses to themselves what it is
right the voluptuaries should hear, "Ye who chant to the
sound of the viol;" and then, turning to others, he intimates
that these men have not even skill in their art: "they thought
that they had instruments of music like David; drinking wine
in bowls, and anointing themselves with the costliest ointment."
These three clauses are best pronounced when the voice is suspended
on the first two members of the period, and comes to a pause
on the third. But now as to the sentence which follows all these:
"and they were not grieved for the affliction of Joseph."
Whether this be pronounced continuously as one clause, or whether
with more elegance we hold the words, "and they were not
grieved," suspended on the voice, and then add, "for
the affliction of Joseph," so as to make a period of two
members; in any case, it is a touch of marvelous beauty not to
say, "and they were not grieved for the affliction of their
brother;" but to put Joseph for brother, so as to indicate
brothers in general by the proper name of him who stands out
illustrious from among his brethren, both in regard to the injuries
he suffered and the good return he made. And, indeed, I do not
know whether this figure of speech, by which Joseph is put for
brothers in general, is one of those laid down in that art which
I learnt and used to teach. But how beautiful it is, and how
it comes home to the intelligent reader, it is useless to tell
any one who does not himself feel it. And a number of other points
bearing on the laws of eloquence could be found in this passage
which I have chosen as an example. But an intelligent reader
will not be so much instructed by carefully analysing it as kindled
by reciting it with spirit. Nor was it composed by man's art
and care, but it flowed forth in wisdom and eloquence from the
divine mind; wisdom not aiming at eloquence, yet eloquence not
shrinking from wisdom. For if, as certain very eloquent and acute
men have perceived and said, the rules which are laid down in
the art of oratory could not have been observed, and noted, and
reduced to system, if they had not first had their birth in the
genius of orators, is it wonderful that they should be found
in the messengers of Him who is the author of all genius? Therefore
let us acknowledge that the canonical writers are not only wise
but eloquent also, with an eloquence suited to a character and
position like theirs.
The obscurity of the sacred
writers, though compatible with eloquence, not to be imitated
by Christian teachers
But although I take some examples of
eloquence from those writings of theirs which there is no difficulty
in understanding, we are not by any means to suppose that it
is our duty to imitate them in those passages where, with a view
to exercise and train the minds of their readers, and to break
in upon the satiety and stimulate the zeal of those who are willing
to learn, and with a view also to throw a veil over the minds
of the godless either that they may be converted to piety or
shut out from a knowledge of the mysteries, from one or other
of these reasons they have expressed themselves with a useful
and wholesome obscurity. They have indeed expressed themselves
in such a way that those who in after ages understood and explained
them aright have in the Church of God obtained an esteem, not
indeed equal to that with which they are themselves regarded,
but coming Next
to it. The expositors of these writers, then,
ought not to express themselves in the same way, as if putting
forward their expositions as of the same authority; but they
ought in all their deliverances to make it their first and chief
aim to be understood, using as far as possible such clearness
of speech that either he will be very dull who does not understand
them, or that if what they say should not be very easily or quickly
understood, the reason will lie not in their manner of expression,
but in the difficulty and subtilty of the matter they are trying
to explain.
How, and with whom, difficult
passages are to be discussed
For there are some passages which are
not understood in their proper force, or are understood with
great difficulty, at whatever length, however clearly, or with
whatever eloquence the speaker may expound them; and these should
never be brought before the people at all, or only on rare occasions
when there is some urgent reason. In books, however, which are
written in such a style that, if understood, they, so to speak,
draw their own readers, and if not understood, give no trouble
to those who do not care to read them, and in private conversations,
we must not shrink from the duty of bringing the truth which
we ourselves have reached within the comprehension of others,
however difficult it may be to understand it, and whatever labour
in the way of argument it may cost us. Only two conditions are
to be insisted upon, that our hearer or companion should have
an earnest desire to learn the truth, and should have capacity
of mind to receive it in whatever form it may be communicated,
the teacher not being so anxious about the eloquence as about
the clearness of his teaching.
The necessity for perspicuity
of style
Now a strong desire for clearness sometimes
leads to neglect of the more polished forms of speech, and indifference
about what sounds well, compared with what dearly expresses and
conveys the meaning intended. Whence a certain author, when dealing
with speech of this kind, says that there is in it "a kind
of careful negligence." Yet while taking away ornament,
it does not bring in vulgarity of speech; though good teachers
have, or ought to have, so great an anxiety about teaching that
they will employ a word which cannot be made pure Latin without
becoming obscure or ambiguous, but which when used according
to the vulgar idiom is neither ambiguous nor obscure) not in
the way the learned, but rather in the way the unlearned employ
it. For if our translators did not shrink from saying, "Non
congregabo conventicula eorum de sanguinibus" (I shall not
assemble their assemblies of blood), because they felt that it
was important for the sense to put a word here in the plural
which in Latin is only used in the singular; why should a teacher
of godliness who is addressing an unlearned audience shrink from
using "ossum" instead of "os", if he fear
that the latter might be taken not as the singular of "ossa",
but as the singular of "ora", seeing that African ears
have no quick perception of the shortness or length of vowels?
And what advantage is there in purity of speech which does not
lead to understanding in the hearer, seeing that there is no
use at all in speaking, if they do not understand us for whose
sake we speak? He, therefore, who teaches will avoid all words
that do not teach; and if instead of them he can find words which
are at once pure and intelligible, he will take these by preference;
if, however, he cannot, either because there are no such words,
or because they do not at the time occur to him, he will use
words that are not quite pure, if only the substance of his thought
be conveyed and apprehended in its integrity. And this must be
insisted on as necessary to our being understood, not only in
conversations, whether with one person or with several, but much
more in the case of a speech delivered in public: for in conversation
any one has the power of asking a question; but when all are
silent that one may be heard, and all faces are turned attentively
upon him, it is neither customary nor decorous for a person to
ask a question about what he does not understand; and on this
account the speaker ought to be especially careful to give assistance
to those who cannot ask it. Now a crowd anxious for instruction
generally shows by its movements if it understands what is said;
and until some indication of this sort be given, the subject
discussed ought to be turned over and over, and put in every
shape and form and variety of expression, a thing which cannot
be done by men who are repeating words prepared beforehand and
committed to memory. As soon, however, as the speaker has ascertained
that what he says is understood, he ought either to bring his
address to a close, or pass on to another point. For if a man
gives pleasure when he throws light upon points on which people
wish for instruction, he becomes wearisome when he dwells at
length upon things that are already well known, especially when
men's expectation was fixed on having the difficulties of the
passage removed. For even things that are very well known are
told for the sake of the pleasure they give, if the attention
be directed not to the things themselves, but to the way in which
they are told. Nay, even when the style itself is already well
known, if it be pleasing to the hearers, it is almost a matter
of indifference whether he who speaks be a speaker or a reader.
For things that are gracefully written are often not only read
with delight by those who are making their first acquaintance
with them, but reread with delight by those who have already
made acquaintance with them, and have not yet forgotten them;
nay, both these classes will derive pleasure even from hearing
another man repeat them. And if a man has forgotten anything,
when he is reminded of it he is taught. But I am not now treating
of the mode of giving pleasure. I am speaking of the mode in
which men who desire to learn ought to be taught. And the best
mode is that which secures that he who hears shall hear the truth,
and that what he hears he shall understand. And when this point
has been reached, no further labour need be spent on the truth
itself, as if it required further explanation; but perhaps some
trouble may be taken to enforce it so as to bring it home to
the heart. If it appear right to do this, it ought to be done
so moderately as not to lead to weariness and impatience.
