Unknown or ambiguous signs
prevent Scripture from being understood
Now there are two causes which prevent what is written from being
understood: its being veiled either under unknown, or under ambiguous
signs. Signs are either proper or figurative. They are called
proper when they are used to point out the objects they were
designed to point out, as we say bos when we mean an ox, because
all men who with us use the Latin tongue call it by this name.
Signs are figurative when the things themselves which we indicate
by the proper names are used to signify something else, as we
say bos, and understand by that syllable the ox, which is ordinarily
called by that name; but then further by that ox understand a
preacher of the gospel, as Scripture signifies, according to
the apostle's explanation, when it says: "Thou shalt not
muzzle the ox that treadeth out the corn."
Knowledge of languages especially of Greek and Hebrew, necessary
to remove ignorance of signs
The great remedy for ignorance of proper signs is knowledge of
languages. And men who speak the Latin tongue, of whom are those
I have undertaken to instruct, need two other languages for the
knowledge of Scripture, Hebrew and Greek, that they may have
recourse to the original texts if the endless diversity of the
Latin translators throw them into doubt. Although, indeed, we
often find Hebrew words untranslated in the books, as for example,
Amen, Hallelujah, Racha, Hosanna, and others of the same kind.
Some of these, although they could have been translated, have
been preserved in their original form on account of the more
sacred authority that attaches to it, as for example, Amen and
Hallelujah. Some of them, again, are said to be untranslatable
into another tongue, of which the other two I have mentioned
are examples. For in some languages there are words that cannot
be translated into the idiom of another language. And this happens
chiefly in the case of interjections, which are words that express
rather an emotion of the mind than any part of a thought we have
in our mind. And the two given above are said to be of this kind,
Racha expressing the cry of an angry man, Hosanna that of a joyful
man. But the knowledge of these languages is necessary, not for
the sake of a few words like these which it is very easy to mark
and to ask about, but, as has been said, on account of the diversities
among translators. For the translations of the Scriptures from
Hebrew into Greek can be counted, but the Latin translators are
out of all number. For in the early days of the faith every man
who happened to get his hands upon a Greek manuscript, and who
thought he had any knowledge, were it ever so little, of the
two languages, ventured upon the work of translation.
A diversity of interpretations
is useful. Errors arising from ambiguous words
And this circumstance would assist rather than hinder the understanding
of Scripture, if only readers were not careless. For the examination
of a number of texts has often thrown light upon some of the
more obscure passages; for example, in that passage of the prophet
Isaiah, one translator reads: "And do not despise the domestics
of thy seed;" another reads: "And do not despise thine
own flesh." Each of these in turn confirms the other. For
the one is explained by the other; because "flesh"
may be taken in its literal sense, so that a man may understand
that he is admonished not to despise his own body; and "the
domestics of thy seed" may be understood figuratively of
Christians, because they are spiritually born of the same seed
as ourselves, namely, the Word. When now the meaning of the two
translators is compared, a more likely sense of the words suggests
itself, viz., that the command is not to despise our kinsmen,
because when one brings the expression "domestics of thy
seed " into relation with "flesh," kinsmen most
naturally occur to one's mind. Whence, I think, that expression
of the apostle, when he says, "If by any means I may provoke
to emulation them which are my flesh, and might save some of
them;" that is, that through emulation of those who had
believed, some of them might believe too. And he calls the Jews
his "flesh," on account of the relationship of blood.
Again, that passage from the same prophet Isaiah: "If ye
will not believe, ye shall not understand," another has
translated: "If ye will not believe, ye shall not abide."
Now which of these is the literal translation cannot be ascertained
without reference to the text in the original tongue. And yet
to those who read with knowledge, a great truth is to be found
in each. For it is difficult for interpreters to differ so widely
as not to touch at some point. Accordingly here, as understanding
consists in sight, and is abiding, but faith feeds us as babes,
upon milk, in the cradles of temporal things (for now we walk
by faith, not by sight); as, moreover, unless we walk by faith,
we shall not attain to sight, which does not pass away, but abides,
our understanding being purified by holding to the truth; --
for these reasons one says, "If ye will not believe, ye
shall not understand;" but the other, "If ye will not
believe, ye shall not abide." And very often a translator,
to whom the meaning is not well known, is deceived by an ambiguity
in the original language, and puts upon the passage a construction
that is wholly alien to the sense of the writer. As for example,
some texts read: "Their feet are sharp to shed blood;"
for the word "oxus" among the Greeks means both sharp
and swift. And so he saw the true meaning who translated: "Their
feet are swift to shed blood." The other, taking the wrong
sense of an ambiguous word, fell into error. Now translations
such as this are not obscure, but false; and there is a wide
difference between the two things. For we must learn not to interpret,
but to correct texts of this sort. For the same reason it is,
that because the Greek word "moschos" means a calf,
some have not understood that "moscheumata" are shoots
of trees, and have translated the word "calves;" and
this error has crept into so many texts, that you can hardly
find it written in any other way. And yet the meaning is very
clear; for it is made evident by the words that follow. For "the
plantings of an adulterer will not take deep root," is a
more suitable form of expression than the "calves;"
because these walk upon the ground with their feet, and are not
fixed in the earth by roots. In this passage, indeed, the rest
of the context also justifies this translation.
How faulty interpretations can be emended
But since we do not clearly see what the actual thought is which
the several translators endeavour to express, each according
to his own ability and judgment, unless we examine it in the
language which they translate; and since the translator, if he
be not a very learned man, often departs from the meaning of
his author, we must either endeavour to get a knowledge of those
languages from which the Scriptures are translated into Latin,
or we must get hold of the translations of those who keep rather
close to the letter of the original, not because these are sufficient,
but because we may use them to correct the freedom or the error
of others, who in their translations have chosen to follow the
sense quite as much as the words. For not only single words,
but often whole phrases are translated, which could not be translated
at all into the Latin idiom by any one who wished to hold by
the usage of the ancients who spoke Latin. And though these sometimes
do not interfere with the understanding of the passage, yet they
are offensive to those who feel greater delight in things when
even the signs of those things are kept in their own purity.
For what is called a solecism is nothing else than the putting
of words together according to a different rule from that which
those of our predecessors who spoke with any authority followed.
For whether we say inter homines (among men) or inter hominibus,
is of no consequence to a man who only wishes to know the facts.
And in the same way, what is a barbarism but the pronouncing
of a word in a different way from that in which those who spoke
Latin before us pronounced it? For whether the word ignoscere
(to pardon) should be pronounced with the third syllable long
or short, is not a matter of much concern to the man who is beseeching
God, in any way at all that he can get the words out, to pardon
his sins. What then is purity of speech, except the preserving
of the custom of language established by the authority of former
speakers? And men are easily offended in a matter of this kind,
just in proportion as they are weak; and they are weak just in
proportion as they wish to seem learned, not in the knowledge
of things which tend to edification, but in that of signs, by
which it is hard not to be puffed up, seeing that the knowledge
of things even would often set up our neck, if it were not held
down by the yoke of our Master. For how does it prevent our understanding
it to have the following passage thus expressed: "Quae est
terra in qua isti insidunt super eam, si bona est an nequam;
et quae sunt civitates, in quibus ipsi inhabitant in ipsis?"
(And what the land is that they dwell in, whether it be good
or bad: and what cities they be that they dwell in. -- Num. 13:19)
And I am more disposed to think that this is simply the idiom
of another language than that any deeper meaning is intended.
Again, that phrase, which we cannot now take away from the lips
of the people who sing it: "Super ipsum autem floriet sanctificatio
mea" (But upon himself shall my holiness flourish -- Ps.132:18),
surely takes away nothing from the meaning. Yet a more learned
man would prefer that this should be corrected, and that we should
say, not fliriet, but florebit. Nor does anything stand in the
way of the correction being made, except the usage of the singers.
Mistakes of this kind, then, if a man do not choose to avoid
them altogether, it is easy to treat with indifference, as not
interfering with a right understanding. But take, on the other
hand, the saying of the apostle: "Quod stultum est Dei,
sapientius est hominibus, et quod infirmum est Dei, fortius est
hominibus" (Because the foolishness of God is wiser than
men, and the weakness of God is stronger than men -- 1 Cor.1:25
). If any one should retain in this passage the Greek idiom,
and say, "Quod stultum est Dei, sapientius est hominum et
quo infirmum est Dei fortius est hominum" (What is foolish
of God is wiser of men, and what is weak of God is stronger of
men), a quick and careful reader would indeed by an effort attain
to the true meaning, but still a man of slower intelligence either
would not understand it at all, or would put an utterly false
construction upon it. For not only is such a form of speech faulty
in the Latin tongue, but it is ambiguous too, as if the meaning
might be, that the folly of men or the weakness of men is wiser
or stronger than that of God. But indeed even the expression
"sapientius est hominibus" (stronger than men) is not
free from ambiguity, even though it be free from solecism. For
whether "hominibus" is put as the plural of the dative
or as the plural of the ablative, does not appear, unless by
reference to the meaning. It would be better then to say, "sapientius
est quam homines", and "fortius est quam homines".
How the meaning of unknown words
and idioms is to be discovered
About ambiguous signs, however, I shall speak afterwards. I am
treating at present of unknown signs, of which, as far as the
words are concerned, there are two kinds. For either a word or
an idiom, of which the reader is ignorant, brings him to a stop.
Now if these belong to foreign tongues, we must either make inquiry
about them from men who speak those tongues, or if we have leisure
we must learn the tongues ourselves, or we must consult and compare
several translators. If, however, there are words or idioms in
our own tongue that we are unacquainted with, we gradually come
to know them through being accustomed to read or to hear them.
There is nothing that it is better to commit to memory than those
kinds of words and phrases whose meaning we do not know, so that
where we happen to meet either with a more learned man of whom
we can inquire, or with a passage that shows, either by the preceding
or succeeding context, or by both, the force and significance
of the phrase we are ignorant of, we can easily by the help of
our memory turn our attention to the matter and learn all about
it. So great, however, is the force of custom, even in regard
to learning, that those who have been in a sort of way nurtured
and brought up on the study of Holy Scripture, are surprised
at other forms of speech, and think them less pure Latin than
those which they have learnt from Scripture, but which are not
to be found in Latin authors. In this matter, too, the great
number of the translators proves a very great assistance, if
they are examined and discussed with a careful comparison of
their texts. Only all positive error must be removed. For those
who are anxious to know the Scriptures ought in the first place
to use their skill in the correction of the texts, so that the
uncorrected ones should give way to the corrected, at least when
they are copies of the same translation.
Among versions a preference is
given to the Septuagint and the Itala
Now among translations themselves the Italian (Itala) is to be
preferred to the others, for it keeps closer to the words without
prejudice to clearness of expression. And to correct the Latin
we must use the Greek versions, among which the authority of
the Septuagint is preeminent as far as the Old Testament is concerned;
for it is reported through all the more learned churches that
the seventy translators enjoyed so much of the presence and power
of the Holy Spirit in their work of translation, that among that
number of men there was but one voice. And if, as is reported,
and as many not unworthy of confidence assert, they were separated
during the work of translation, each man being in a cell by himself,
and yet nothing was found in the manuscript of any one of them
that was not found in the same words and in the same order of
words in all the rest, who dares put anything in comparison with
an authority like this, not to speak of preferring anything to
it? And even if they conferred together with the result that
a unanimous agreement sprang out of the common labour and judgment
of them all; even so, it would not be right or becoming for any
one man, whatever his experience, to aspire to correct the unanimous
opinion of many venerable and learned men. Wherefore, even if
anything is found in the original Hebrew in a different form
from that in which these men have expressed it, I think we must
give way to the dispensation of Providence which used these men
to bring it about, that books which the Jewish race were unwilling,
either from religious scruple or from jealousy, to make known
to other nations, were, with the assistance of the power of King
Ptolemy, made known so long beforehand to the nations which in
the future were to believe in the Lord. And thus it is possible
that they translated in such a way as the Holy Spirit, who worked
in them and had given them all one voice, thought most suitable
for the Gentiles. But nevertheless, as I said above, a comparison
of those translators also who have kept most closely to the words,
is often not without value as a help to the clearing up of the
meaning. The Latin texts, therefore, of the Old Testament are,
as I was about to say, to be corrected if necessary by the authority
of the Greeks, and especially by that of those who, though they
were seventy in number, are said to have translated as with one
voice. As to the books of the New Testament, again, if any perplexity
arises from the diversities of the Latin texts, we must of course
yield to the Greek, especially those that are found in the churches
of greater learning and research.
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